Network monitoring and analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

System observing and examination - Assignment Example 214). Aimless solicitations for section into the system at such a rate, that the servers neglect to react in a convenient way prompting clog development is one of the trademark highlights of Denial of Service activity. Tear Dropping and shared assaults are ordinarily known activities and exercises that are involved in the area of DoS assaults on the systems. Various activities might be attempted as counter measures against DoS. The establishment of a viable firewall is one potential arrangement against this threat. Firewall permits consecutive section of traffic and demands and in this way keeps the framework from flood and flooding of solicitations. Other potential alternatives of security incorporate strategies, for example, Black holding, or basically utilization of switches as a substitute. The method of Internet Based Prevention System is likewise a choice against the DoS movement which permits running a smooth operational

Terminator and the Matrix Essay Example

Eliminator and the Matrix Essay Example Eliminator and the Matrix Essay Eliminator and the Matrix Essay The word reference term for generalizing is a fixed picture or thought of a sort of individual or thing that is broadly held. Generalizing was exceptionally famous towards ladies before the 1980s. This was called sexism. Ladies were dealt with severely for example there was discussion of a biased based impediment, this was a term used to portray how ladies were forestalled to arrive at top positions. Generalizing can be utilized in various manners. One route was in films, for example, Legally Blond and Miss Congeniality. The demonstration of generalizing in the film Legally Blond is the point at which a lady is depicted as a Barbie doll. At that point exploits her looks and uses it to get what she needs. Not long after she was at long last, regarded or her mind than her decision of style. Anyway Miss Congeniality is known for an alternate and unforeseen sort of generalizing. This time the fundamental character was indicated very masculine. In this manner she experienced a procedure of getting extremely ladylike. Those movies demonstrate that it may be troublesome however lady can do for all intents and purposes whatever men can do. In the two movies the Terminator and the Matrix generalizing has been utilized as often as possible and unmitigatedly. For example in the film Terminator, Sarah Connor is spoken to as a common energetic lady. This is uncovered the crowd when her lone outfits are for the most part pink. Rather than Sarah, Trinity has been spoken to characteristically also, anyway in the direct inverse of Sarah Connor. For instance she has been indicated masculine and brave, this through the CGI which causes trinity to perform exceptional forces. Additionally the decision of Trinitys name is unexpected in light of the fact that it is very ladylike, which would be given to somebody who is womanly. While toward the, start of the film Trinity appears to be a dull and puzzling individual. This is parted with in various parts of he the film, for example, in the introduction the soundtrack is extremely tense and wiry. The executive likewise made the music quick and high tuned during the pursuit scene among Trinity and Mr Smith. This underscores the way that there is activity going on. The impact of this can let the watchers truly feel and envision what Trinity is thinking and doing. Following an alternate territory of the film the lighting uncovers a great deal about Trinitys character. While presenting the film it is extremely dim and creepy with a couple of spot lights from the policemens lights. This accomplishes the acquaintance of Trinity with be exceptionally dim and tense. It additionally gives the setting an extremely terrifying air; this edges the peruser to foresee what, may occur straightaway. The lighting, also, is diminish in the primary shot of her. This demonstrates Trinity to be gender ambiguous; it makes a feeling of riddle to what sex she is. Also, as it changes to a nearby shot of Trinity affirms that she is a lady. It likewise uncovers in that scene that she is quiet and in charge, despite the fact that there was many police officers with firearms directly behind her. Anyway she despite everything is by all accounts gender ambiguous through her decision of ensemble and make up. For example in a dose of Trinity she is wearing a P.V.C, dark feline suit which speaks to her quality and force. This is additionally communicated from the intense, solid shade of her dark garments. In any event, when she goes out, other than wearing a dress, she despite everything dresses somewhere near wearing similar hues and no adornments. This gives the crowd an impression of how adult, free and solid she is. She is, coincidently as the men around her, this shows the executive needed to introduce that Trinity is indistinguishable to any one else. Her common utilization of make-up depicts her as a man, for example, the manner in which she generally has her hair tied back even in a club. This discloses to us that she doesnt look like shes attempting to dazzle or pull in any one. I figure the executive did this entire plain look of Trinity to make individuals perceive how various ladies have various characteristics. The enhancements utilized in the Matrix lets Trinity appear to be exceptionally courageous. This done through CGI, PC create symbolism. One case of this is the point at which she could hop a significant distance, starting with one structure then onto the next. The CGI utilized in this is showing that gravity has no impact on trinity. Though the cops pursuing her didnt even attempt to emulate trinity since they knew it was outlandish. This demonstrates Trinity can do aptitudes that men cannot do, not to mention abilities that are strangely impractical to people. In this manner she is superhuman. For example Trinity utilizes her own forces as opposed to utilizing and depending on firearms, which is a differentiation to the cops. This gives the watchers a feeling that ladies can be more grounded than men. Another way that demonstrated Trinity to be chivalrous is when Trinity figures out how to escape a circumstance when she was going to surrender. By convincing and constraining her to b eat her dread and continue. This will in all likelihood move ladies everywhere throughout the world to be much the same as her. Then again Sarah is a finished distinctive character to Trinity. This time, Sarah has been demonstrated diverse in manners that are very hottest. Beginning of with the soundtrack, this was extremely delicate in the presentation of Sarah Connor. I figure the executive did this with the goal that Sarah can go over extremely blameless and sweet practically like a youngster. Anyway as the watcher gets into the film the music changes into heart beat sound while Sarah strolls outside without anyone else around evening time. This gives a strained environment and causes you to feel as though something will occur. We likewise get the feeling that Sarah feels the equivalent, that is the reason she went into a club. Coincidently it has many individuals in it. The air in the club was exceptionally jittery. It had quick music and blazing lights which uncovers how urgent Sarah may have felt. The way that she needs to go to a club shows she doesnt have enough certainty and the capacity to guard her self. In this manner she is presented to be a vulnerable casualty. Anyway she additionally gives some knowledge since Sarah likely realized that whoevers behind her has a less possibility of catching her in a crowed place. I think the executive utilized the lighting to cause Sarah to appear to be much increasingly cultured. For example, in one scene as she goes to work the lighting is splendid and radiant. Additionally the music nearly seems like s agreement. This underlines Sarahs women's activist side. The executives choice of apparel is exceptionally, for example, in her activity, the hues utilized in Sarahs outfits are extremely female. She continually sports pink for example the primary shot of her is in a delicate pink coat. This gives the impression of Sarah delicate, quiet and delicate. Her uniform is very scanty and pink too, which is certifiably not a unisex shading in this way the activity of holding up in a drive-through joint was regularly just implied for ladies additionally that Sarah doesnt mind. At long last her robe has animation characters, of the Jetsons, on it. This reveals to us that she is juvenile and virtuous. Besides she utilizes a great deal of make-up. I know this from a sce ne where he includes more make-up no top of the make-up she as of now has on the grounds that she is going out. The entire picture of he was down with the goal that she depicted as an arch light. Since this was made during the 1980s I think ladies were gone before that way. I n Sarahs case no enhancements were utilized this exhibit she is conventional, ordinary and simply like us. Anyway there were various courses in demonstrating what Sarah resembles. In the scene where Sarah is in a dance club she attempts to call somebody. I guess the telephone represents how terrified she is and how hysterical she is for help. Likewise the scene before she goes to work she converses with a sculpture, this emphasizes the point that she is extremely adolescent and childlike. In the event that we look at the two we discover that the two of them strife one another. What's more, the two of them speak to their character in various manners, for example Trinity is demonstrated to be free and solid. For example, in a scene a police officer is being disparages towards Trinity by saying whats one young lady going to do. This is unexpected in light of the fact that later on Trinity figures out how to guard herself. By assaulting about six cops, which each had a firearm, and out run them to. Likewise in the club scene, when Trinity meets Neo, Neo is stunned to discover that Trinity was really a young lady. This is made known when he says youre Trinity? This is generalizing Trinitys capacities, which uncovers that Neo hushes up chauvinist, that he thinks just work like splitting into PCs is finished by men. Sarahs character can be known in the scene where her sweetheart dropped on her up yet she didnt respond like an agitated sweetheart would do, this demonstrates a shortcoming to her character that she is excessively permissive. It additionally appears the two of them live in equal universes. This features the purpose of how the world has changed from 1980 to the 1990s. Also, how it has developed from ladies being generalized to them picking up the rights they merit.

monitoring Of Central Venous Pressure(CVP) Essay

Management/monitoring Of Central Venous Pressure(CVP) Essay Management/monitoring Of Central Venous Pressure(CVP) â€" Essay Example > The care management of an adult patient with central venous lineIntroductionManagement of Central venous pressure is essential in treating the patients with septic shock. Doctors find the need of maintaining CVP while adjusting cardiac preload, contractility, after-load to balance systemic oxygen delivery on demand. Maintenance of adequate central venous pressure helps in carrying out hemodynamic adjustments and maximizing mixed or central venous oxygen saturation. In general patient need CVP greater than 8mm Hg in case of one lactate greater than 4mmol/L and initial fluid challenge with 20mL/Kg of crystalloid equivalent. Management of CVP includes maintaining CVP, considering blood products, maintaining pressure in mechanically ventilated patients, in the cases to increase abdominal pressure and in the cases of septic patients having multi-factorial aspects that demand CVP. 2. Literature Review2.1 General View about CVP: CVP is a direct measurement of the blood pressure in the ri ght atrium and vena cava. The system acquires this pressure threading a central venous catheter into any of various large veins in the cavity. A pressure monitoring assembly in distal port of a multilumen central vein catheter helps in monitor the CVP. The CVP catheter is a significant tool to assess the right ventricular function and systemic fluid status. In normal conditions, the CVP is 2-6mm Hg. CVP increases due to over-hydration that increases venous return. The heart failure or PA stenosis also may lead to venous congestion as it limits the venous outflow. CVP decreases below normal due to hypo-volemic shock from haemorrhage. This may be due to fluid shift and dehydration. The mechanical negative pressure used for high spinal cord injuries also can lead to the decrease of CVP. Considering above-mentioned measurements, the CVP catheter is an important tool for treatment. The monitoring is essential in the cases of rapid infusion, infusion of hypertonic solutions and medicati ons that may damage veins and venous blood assessment. 2.2 Definition and Measurement: According to publications of Sepsis Surviving Campaign, there are no definite calculations provided for Central Venous Pressure. Clinicians like to have a not that central venous pressure as an estimate of volume status that is underestimated in patients receiving positive end expiratory pressure. This is due to absence of measurement tool to account for the effects of PEEP on CVP. 2.3During Liver Transplantations: The effect of low central venous pressure is a factor in transfusion requirements of blood products during liver transplantations and has considerable effect. According to Massicotte et al observation in 2006 regarding liver transplantations, maintaining low central venous pressure through restriction of volume replacement corrected the coagulation defects with plasma transfusion. The basis is regarding the observation of the results in 100 liver transplantations during a two-year peri od. They concluded that the avoidance of plasma transfusion and maintenance of low CVP before anhepatic phase finds its association with RBC transfusions during liver transplantations. This study supports practicing of lowering CVP with phlebotomy in order to reduce blood loss during liver dissection without harmful effect. 2.4 Relationship with Arterial Blood Pressure: The Arterial Blood Pressure is dependent on the product of cardiac output and peripheral resistance. Heart rate and stroke volume control cardiac output. The stroke volume is in turn, related with myocardial contractility and blood volume. The central venous filling or central venous pressure depends on the above-mentioned conditions. Due to this, the venous pressure originates from the arterial pressure. This is in turn, transmitted through the capillary pressure into the venous reservoir. The effects of three factors that include circulation then calculate the CVP. Those three effects are Cardiac pump action, Cir culating blood volume and vascular tone. Cardiac pump action contains inflow that accelerates venous flow and outflow that impedes the venous pressure. The circulating blood volume is a determining factor in the maintenance of central venous pressure. This is because the venous side of vascular system accommodates 50 to 55 percent of total blood volume. Vascular tone refers to external pressure exerted on veins. This depends on contractility of veins, as the veins are resistance vessels. The stimulation of alpha-receptor sites can result in vasoconstriction. Other factors that contribute to external and lateral pressure are pressure by skeletal muscles, tone and pump valve effects. The tissue pressure and respiratory movements also result in exerting CVP. However, the CVP is not an index of blood volume per second as it is the analysis of the interrelated effects of the blood volume, cardiac pump action and vascular tone.

An Analysis of Personality Theory - 1332 Words

An Analysis of Personality Theory by for Everyone has a personality, of course, but until fairly recently, there were no personality theories available to help understand what factors contribute to its development. In recent years, though, personality theories such as McCrae and Costas Big Five and Schwartzs theory of basic values have been advanced for these purposes. To gain some deeper insights into these issues, this paper presents a review of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature to provide a definition of personality and an examination of theoretical approaches to studying personality. Finally, an analysis of those factors that may influence an individuals personality development is followed by a summary of the research and important findings concerning personality theory in the conclusion. Review and Analysis Definition of Personality An individuals personality is comprised of several factors, some of which may be more prominent at some times than others. The dictionary entry personality defines it as, the complex of characteristics that distinguishes an individual or a nation or group; especially the totality of an individuals behavioral and emotional characteristics (Merriam-Webster, 2001, p. 1687). In this regard, Barrick and Mount (1999) advise that, Personality may to advantage be broadly analyzed into five distinguishable but separate factors, namely intellect, character, temperament, disposition and temper (p. 2). Examination ofShow MoreRelatedIndividuation Analysis : Jungs Theory Of Personality1629 Words   |  7 Pagesthemselves what the point of their existence is (Storr, 1991). One has to self-analyze and let all parts of themselves become one. At the end of this process, a person will be an integrated individual (Storr, 1991). Jung’s Theory of Personality One of Jung’s major contributions was his theory of psychological types. This approach introduced extraversion and introversion (Downey, 1924). According to Jung, an extroverted person’s libido turned outward. This means that a person in a state of extraversion movedRead MoreCritical Analysis of Freuds Theory of Personality907 Words   |  4 PagesSUMMARY Personality is the enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may change in response to different situations. It can be asses via different approaches such as Self-report or objective inventories, projective techniques, clinical interviews, behavioural assessment procedures and thought and experience-sampling procedures. In the study of personality ideographic research and nomothetic research are used and the major methods that the clinical method, the experimental method and theRead MorePersonality Analysis of Marilyn Monroe by Using Trait Theories1078 Words   |  5 PagesPersonality Analysis of Marilyn Monroe By Using Trait Theories Marilyn Monroe, whose real name is Norma Jeane Mortenson, was born on June 1, 1926 in Los Angeles, California. She was American actress, singer and model. She also was one of the most famous movie star, the sex symbols and pop icons of the 20th century. Despite her an unhappy, difficult childhood she got succeed during her short life period. She worked minor roles for years. Then, she showed her comedy ability, appearance on televisionRead MoreAnalysis of Erik, Phantom of the Opera Using Two Contrasting Personality Theories4920 Words   |  20 Pagesï » ¿Analysis of Erik, Phantom of the Opera Using Two Contrasting Personality Theories The tremendously popular and well-known Andrew Lloyd Webber’s 1986 musical production of The Phantom of the Opera was based on the French novel Le Fantà ´me de lOpà ©ra written by Gaston Leroux in1910 (Leroux, 1910/1990). The original novel gave little direct details with respect to Erik’s past; what was abundant however were hints and implications about the character’s life history throughout the book (Leroux, 1910/1990)Read MoreCosta And Mccrae s Five Factor Theory Of Personality And Eysenck s Pen Theory1496 Words   |  6 PagesCosta and McCrae’s Five Factor theory of personality and Eysenck’s PEN theory have been the subject of significant research in an effort to better understand human personality. This paper focuses on two opposing theories: Costa and McCrae’s Five Factor model, a lexically-based theory with five factors, and Eysenck’s PEN model, a biologically-based theory with three core traits of personality. Utilizing factor analysis, Raymond Cattell (1946) recognized 16 personality factors (16pf). Cattell believedRead MoreFreuds and Rogers Theories of Personality Psychotherapy1004 Words   |  4 PagesFreuds and Rogers Theories Personality Psychotherapy A comparison of Freud and Rogers theories of personality and psychotherapy Personality is the description of an individual through how the individual demonstrates his or her emotions and building relationship and their behavioral patterns. Two neurologists developed two theories to explain the formation of personalities. They were neurologist Sigmund Freud and psychologist Carl Rogers. Rogers and Freud worked in the field of psychotherapyRead MoreEssay about Jennys Personality; Interpretation of Forrest Gump1419 Words   |  6 PagesForrest Gump: Jenny’s Personality Monday, August 22, 2011 PSY202 – Principles of Psychology In this character analysis paper the character of Jenny Curran from the award winning movie Forrest Gump will be the subject of discussion. This paper will present an analysis of the Jenny’s personality as it is applicable to Psychodynamic theory. The paper will present my rationale for the choice to use the Psychodynamic theory to describe Jenny Curran’s personality. In addition, this paper willRead MoreOrganizational Testing and Assessment Essay examples1171 Words   |  5 Pageseffective and reliable in screening employees. In addition they need to know how to properly administer and interpret the results. In the sections below, performance appraisal, behavioral observation scales, the Big Five Personality Theory, meta-analysis, and Carroll’s three stratum theory will be all described and what their purpose is as to being used in organizational testing and assessment. A performance appraisal is basically the same things as a performance of one’s work, a review, an evaluationRead MoreThe Five Factor Model Of Personality853 Words   |  4 PagesAn analysis of the five factor model of personality Many contemporary psychologists believe that there are five basic dimensions of personality and refer to them as the ‘Big Five’. The five-factor model (FFM) of personality is a theory based on five core categories of human personality – openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. While different theorists may use different terminology, the five factors or personality traits have shown a rather consistent pattern overRead MoreComparing The Work Of Sigmund Freud And A Neo Analytical Theorist1290 Words   |  6 Pages Contrasting Personality Theories: Analysis of Freud and Karen Horney Yorkville University Alanna Sampson â€Æ' Abstract The purpose of this paper is to provide an analysis of the work of Sigmund Freud and a neo-analytical theorist. This paper will compare the work of Freud and Karen Horney and begins with an introduction to the study of personality and an identification of the key elements in Freud and Horney’s theories. The paper then moves into an analysis of where Horney and Freud would

Chesapeake And New England Colonies Essay - 1819 Words

A community is a group of people who work together towards a common goal and share a common interest. Lack of such a quality can and most likely will cause a struggling town or city to fall into the extremes of poverty and wealth. The New England community was so strong and so supportive in comparison to that of the Chesapeake Bay, that it is no wonder they developed into two distinctly different cultures before the year 1700. The Chesapeake region developed into a land of plantations and money-driven owners, with the elite wealthy, almost no middle class, and those in poverty creating the population. New England, on the other hand, had developed into a religion and family based society comprised of mostly middle class families by 1700.†¦show more content†¦The motives that drove the Pilgrims and Puritans away from anything familiar and the trust they placed in God only proved that they were going to make their life in the new world work, no matter what. Not everyone in Engl and was facing a harsh persecution; many travelers came to the New World with high hopes of money, which led to numerous conflicts. It was a land for the rich to get richer. Most of the settlers bound for Virginia and the Southern colonies had a get rich or die trying type of attitude. The only thing tearing them from home was a flimsy promise of gold that may or may not be there. The motive of such people is so radically different. There were no pacts of agreement, no common laws that kept them in a community once landing. This led the men to never develop any sense of belonging with their fellow men, causing a distinct survival society by 1700. Every man was for himself. It was a bitter game displaying the survival of the richest. The travelers from England that headed for the Chesapeake Bay were predominantly men, which led to an unbalanced society and lack of wives to promote a family-based culture. The passenger list for one boat had a sex ratio of sixty-four men to eleven women. Not only was there a radical imbalance, only four of the men were above forty, while only eight total were above thirty (Doc. C). That left fifty-six young males headed to a new land with only their self-government of a HouseShow MoreRelatedThe New England And Chesapeake Colonies1471 Words   |  6 Pageswas the formation of the thirteen colonies along the North American east coast. These colonies are generally divided into New England, Middle and South or the Chesapeake regions. Most of these colonies were settled by the British, yet they developed differently as the years went by. Some developed into more egalitarian colonies and some not. The greatest differences could be seen in the New England and Chesapeake regions. Even tho ugh the New England and Chesapeake regions were settled originally byRead MoreThe New England And The Chesapeake Colonies Essay1476 Words   |  6 Pagesleading into the 17th century. England was very forceful in pushing out multiple groups of people to the eastern coast of what is now known as North America. At that time there were only two prominent regions in North America, they were known then as the New England and the Chesapeake colonies. These two colonies would eventually band together to stand as one nation, but that was toward the end of the 17th century. The beginning tells a completely different story, both colonies had very different beliefsRead MoreThe New England And Chesapeake Colonies1290 Words   |  6 Pagesfurther exploration of this new world opened to many countries in Europe including England, Spain, and France. While France conquered present day Canada and Spain dominated both Central and South America, English mostly settled in the east coast of present da y United States. During the seventeenth century, a large influx of immigrants came to the New World from England for many different reasons. Due to differences in motive and geography, the New England and Chesapeake colonies developed unique societiesRead MoreThe New England And Chesapeake Colonies1490 Words   |  6 PagesThe people of the New England and Chesapeake colonies, although came from the same people, turned into very different cultures. For example, in New England, Puritanism was favored while in the Chesapeake region Christianity was practiced. Often times, religion would dictate a certain peoples way of life. Although both religions were strict, both had different ideas. Also, there were disagreements that occurred between the people within a colony. Many other ways of life were established in each ofRead MoreThe Chesapeake Colonies and New England Colonies Essay1260 Words   |  6 PagesSpain, Portugal, Holland, and England, all competed for colonization in unknown territories. Samuel de Champlain colonized along the St. Lawrence River in 1608, Henry Hudson of Holland established Albany in 1609, and Spain established colonies in Mexico and Mesoamerica. In 1607, England established its first colony in North America around the Chesapeake Bay, and nearly a decade later established a second colony in present-day New England. Both New England and the Chesapeake were founded by the BritishRead MoreChesapeake Colonies vs. New England Colonies933 Words   |  4 Pagescentury, two colonies emerged from England in the New World. The two colonies were called the Chesapeake and New England colonies. Even though the two areas were formed and governed by the English, the colonies had similarities as well as differences. Differences in geography, religion, politics, economic, and nationalities, were responsible for molding the colonies. These differences came from one major factor: the very reason the English settlers came to the New World. †¨The Chesa peake colonies were primarilyRead MoreCompare And Contrast The Chesapeake And New England Colonies1071 Words   |  5 Pagesthe New World, the English also started to establish colonies and settle in the New World. To encourage the colonization of the New World, England offered charters to Joint-Stock Companies and individuals to set up colonies in the New World. Although the Chesapeake and New England settlers both migrated from England, the two regions of the New World developed into distinctly different societies due to different economic reasons, types of people, and political organization. Both of the colonies hadRead MoreEssay Chesapeake Vs. New England Colonies763 Words   |  4 Pagesdiversity being sown in the early days of colonization when the Chesapeake and New England colonies grew into distinctive societies. Even though both regions were primarily English, they had similarities as well as striking differences. The differentiating characteristics among the Chesapeake and New England colonies developed due to geography, religion, and motives for colonial expansion. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Virginia, the Chesapeake Bay area, was not interested in long-term colonization inRead MoreDifferences Between New England And Chesapeake Colonies1276 Words   |  6 Pagesfindings of new created much curiosity in Europe to explore and conquer new lands in order to expand their empire. In the early 1600’s a surge of motivation to explore and settle new colonies came over England. The Result of this was the New England and Chesapeake colonies, who were both settled by immigrants from England. Many people decided they needed to escape England due to religious persecution and poverty. Hundreds of families, men, women, and their children, came in search of a New World whereRead MoreA Comparison of the New England and the Chesapeake Bay Colonies947 Words   |  4 Pagesthe New England and Chesapeake Bay Regions During the 1700s, people in the American colonies lived in very distinctive societies. While some colonists led hard lives, others were healthy and prosperous. The two groups who showed these differences were the colonists of the New England and Chesapeake Bay areas. The differentiating characteristics among the Chesapeake and New England colonies developed due to economy, religion, and motives for colonial expansion. The colonists of the New England

Defining The Meaning Of Corporate Social Responsibility

2.0 Discussion 2.1 Defining the meaning of Corporate Social Responsibility Till now, there is no concrete definition of CSR in international level, as it is difficult to identify the boundaries of CSR. Therefore, there are several definitions to describe what the CSR policy is. However, it is noted [1] that CSR meaning is different from countries to other countries and depends upon a range of factors including culture, religion, and governmental or legislative conditions. For instance, the practise of CSR in South Africa focused on matters of racial inequality due to the historic event of Apartheid, while the practise of CSR in Argentina is determined in accordance with the impact of economical crisis in December 2001. W. Visser claimed [2] that, CSR is the formal and informal ways in which business makes a contribution to improving the governance, social, ethical, labour and environmental conditions of the developing countries in which they operate, while remaining sensitive to prevailing religious, historical and cultural contexts . ’ European Commission defines[3] that CSR is , A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)[4]: Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development whileShow MoreRelatedCorporate Social Responsibility And Its Effects On Consumers And Brand Equity1107 Words   |  5 Pages1: Introduction: Corporate social responsibility is an ambiguous topic to say the least. There has been a vast array of research conducted aimed at understanding why businesses use it, and its effects on consumers and brand equity. In the following section, I will highlight some of the main literature, and critically discuss some of the findings. There is however, a gap in research in terms of critically analysing the extent to which firms position themselves with CSR initiatives through the useRead MoreMicrosoft’s Partnership with Unhcr – Pro Bono Publico Essay1089 Words   |  5 Pagesbetween the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the software giant Microsoft Corporation facilitated a strategic and mutually beneficial partnership, as well as shaping the definition today of good corporate social responsibility. The corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiative was created back in 1999 as an endeavor at a point in time when Microsoft employees engaged to assi st to aid the victims of the Kosovo crisis. The emotional undertaking is referred to as the spark createdRead MoreDefining Civic And Social Responsibility920 Words   |  4 PagesCivic / Social Responsibility Defining Civic and Social Responsibility In a recent article concerning corporate social responsibility, it reveals; â€Å"a survey conducted by and BEYOND Communications Inc. shows big changes in how CEOs reported on corporate social responsibilities.† (Go figure - corporate social responsibility, (2005). The point of view is changing within the corporation world. CEOs are now taking note that this needs to be incorporated into the corporate structure and is a significantRead MoreCarrolls Interpretation of Corporate Social Responsibility1191 Words   |  5 PagesThis report will demonstrate how Carroll’s interpretation of corporate social Responsibility (CSR) is more suited to an Anglo-American interpretation of CSR compared to that of a Nigerian perspective as it is difficult to apply the ideas in the African context due to the country being less stable than the western world that we know. To demonstrate this I will look at the Shell case study in Nigeria and how â€Å"culture may have an important inf luence on CSR priorities† (Burton et al, 2000). In MarchRead MoreHistory And Meaning Of Corporate Governance1450 Words   |  6 PagesCorporate governance is a key term to understand and it is increasingly important part of running a successful company. The system has evolved over the years, guided by the challenges and misjudgements of the corporate world. The following guide will help you look into the history and meaning of corporate governance and find out about the core principles of it. You can also read about the key models and guidelines that help companies implement strong corporate governance in the demanding and competitiveRead MoreImportance of Sustainability in Organizations636 Words   |  3 Pagesimportant on the corporate agenda. According to Brundtland Commission of the  United Nations (1987) sustainability is defined as operating in a way that preserves the long-term quality and productive capacity of both the natural and social environments in which a company operates. For humans, sustainability is defined as the potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Sustainability therefore involves: †¢ A broad view of social, environmentalRead MoreWhat Does Corporate Responsibility Mean1518 Words   |  7 PagesWhat Does Corporate Social Responsibility Mean? Corporate initiative to assess and take responsibility for the company s effects on the environment and impact on social welfare. The term generally applies to company efforts that go beyond what may be required by regulators or environmental protection groups.  Ã‚   Corporate social responsibility may also be referred to as corporate citizenship and can involve incurring short-term costs that do not provide an immediate financial benefit to theRead MoreThe Concepts Of Corporate Social Responsibility1456 Words   |  6 PagesThe concepts of corporate social responsibility (CSR) have been evolving for decades. At the very beginning, it was argued that corporation’s sole responsibility was to provide maximum financial returns to shareholders. However, it became quickly apparent to everyone that this pursuit of financial gain had to take place within the boundary of the legal system (Carroll, 1979;1991). Bowen’s 1953 publication of ‘Social Responsibility of Businessman’ was considered by many scholar to be the first definitiveRead MoreValues, Ethics, And Sustainability1049 Words   |  5 Pagesstrong relations with each other, companies strategically thinking how to improve business and having partnerships with each othe r to help out today’s social problems. Key Words: Community, Community relations manager, License to operate, Volunteerism, Collaborative Partnerships. The Community and the Corporation Chapter eighteen focuses on defining community and understanding how companies and communities depend on each other to work together. A community benefits business and corporations becauseRead MoreThe Corporate Social Responsibilities ( Csr ) And Maintainability1483 Words   |  6 PagesPresentation Deliberating with the rules given in the inquiries, the entire task worries about the Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR) and maintainability. As it is specified in the inquiries we ll be discussing the CSR and maintainability. The goals of each business while building up are to make the financial conditions more grounded and to last nature for future era. Performing amid its normal exercises, it is having negative effect in nature. In the event that these sorts of exercises are

Professional - Ethical & Legal Issues in Healthcare

Question: Discuss about theProfessional, Ethical Legal Issues in Healthcare. Answer: Introduction The advancement of medical science has brought forth multiple changes in the healthcare sector in keeping with the changing trends and needs of the hour. The modifications and drastic measures that are revised from time to time support for the economic as well as health wise prosperity of the citizens of a nation. The alterations and changes prior to coming into force have to face several intermittent stages of abiding by the ethical issues and legal implications so as to ensure optimum outcomes in the concerned population. Therefore, the measures adapted to culminate in harboring maximum possible benefit out of a clinical situation are often shrouded with few questions and circumstances that account for ethical dilemma (Lo, 2012). This necessitates the healthcare providers encompassing physicians, nurses, paramedics and other supporting staff to strictly work in compliance with the existing code of conduct, guidelines and legislations to render quality healthcare facility to the dis tressed patients without violating the ethical and legal principles. The shared decision making in this regard have been indicated as an essential virtue to translate the conceptions into actual clinical practice (Elwin et al. 2012). The following assignment will be based on a scenario concerning a terminally ill cancer survivor that provides an example of ethical dilemma. The discussions will be done in accordance with the given scenario following the ethical, legal and professional aspects of a practice based situation. Further application and evaluation of the bioethical principles involving autonomy, justice, beneficence, and non-maleficence will form the basis of the logical discussion. Philosophical theories such as deontology and utilitarianism will be considered for understanding the situation pertinent to the given scenario. These theories and principles will be interlinked to the case situation to get an insight into the relevant scenario. Ethical Situation During the course of my clinical practice as a nursing professional I encountered a situation that had put me into ethical dilemma. Ms. Ann was diagnosed with cancer and was brought to the hospital for the treatment of her ailment. However, her family members were very much concerned about Ms. Ann and insisted that this harsh truth of cancer diagnosis be concealed from her in an effort to allay her emotional distress of being informed to be diagnosed of a life threatening disease like that of cancer. The end of life decisions and treatments for such patients is therefore imperative to foster best possible care (Bossaert et al. 2015). The reason I chose to discuss this particular instance is that the decisions and subsequent care and treatment regime for people suffering from debilitating and serious illness like that of cancer, AIDS and others have been a matter of serious concern for the healthcare providers globally. These people particularly the nurses are challenged to take independent and case appropriate measures to provide maximum relief to these terminally ill patients without breaching bioethical principles and inflicting any sort of harm. Thus proper awareness and knowledge regarding the laws and professional as well as ethical issues will aid the nurses to act rationally and cope up with the demanding scenarios effectively (Walker and Colledge 2013). Discussion The given case may be analyzed in the light of the ethical, legal and professional aspects of a practice based situation. Research reveals that oncology nurses routinely encounter situations of ethical dilemma while caring for advanced cancer patient specifically relating prognosis related communications. The nurses experience situations of uncertainty and barriers in providing end of life care healthcare service and hence clarifications regarding their roles and responsibilities to counteract such incidents are required. The most commonly reported ethical dilemma involves uncertainty and hindrance to truth telling (McLennon et al. 2013). Similar encounter is reported in case of Ms. Ann, a cancer patient where the family members are found to persuade the nursing professionals to refrain from uttering the truth to the patient for preventing further mental complications mainly. Interdisciplinary education may contribute to mitigate the issues faced by the nursing professionals. Therefo re, in this matter global bioethics may be consulted to attain a level of consensus through constructive dialogues and negotiations. Both bottom-up as well as top-down approach of interaction may be suitable in such cases (ten Have and Gordijn 2014). All the virtues and guiding principles need to be properly addressed in each of the cases to provide an effective solution to the demanding problems. The given scenario will be discussed in such pretext. Autonomy and justice are the two most essential virtues of bioethical principles. Autonomy upholds the privacy and confidentiality of the affected individuals or the patients receiving care under the guidance of the healthcare worker in a specific clinical setting and infrastructure. Provision of sufficient information without suppression of facts to enable them to make informed choices is an important prerequisite of such principle (Beauchamp 2016). On the other hand justice emphasizes on equal worth of persons and fair opportunity for all and is guided by a moral obligation to entitlement (Cole, Wellard and Mummery 2014). Customarily patient advocacy has recently been reinforced in the nursing codes of conduct, codes of ethics and standards for practice to promote resolution of these issues in the clinical practice. In the given context Ms. Allens privacy and confidentiality was effectively maintained thus providing evidence for acting in conformity with the autonomy principle. However concealment of facts was done in this case in an effort to do good to her without taxing her with the harsh truth about her prevailing clinical condition. Her family members were fully aware about her clinical condition and they only appealed the nurses of not telling her the truth. No discrimination was performed in treating the patient and therefore justice was adequately protected. In a holistic approach for patient management and treatment strategy a patient and family centered care model has been recommended to better understand the clinical outcomes in such patients. Coordination and communication among all the components involved is thus suggested as integral to patient recovery (Hood 2013). Therefore, in the said case a little violation of autonomy principle was observed due to truth concealment from the p atient although justice was provided to the utmost. In nursing practice consideration of three key aspects of care, vulnerability and dignity have been highlighted as ethical approaches to maintain, protect and promote the self worth of the patient. This has been observed as a foundation for argument based nursing ethics framework (Gastmans 2013). This philosophy may be corroborated with the given case study where the nurses refrained from uttering the truth regarding the diagnosis of cancer in Ms. Ann due to the potential vulnerability of her from actually getting to know the significance of her clinical findings. Care was also properly addressed in terms of provision of moral support to the patient without actually making her aware about the graveness of her ailment. Dignity of Ms. Ann was maintained throughout the treatment regime by virtue of ethical and legal compliance to the professional codes of conduct as referred to in the Singapore Nursing Board guidelines related to Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct for the nurses (A non, 2016). Another aspect of the healthcare sector emphasizes on the active participation of the end users of healthcare commonly referred to as the patients, consumers or public into decision making in both economic and therapeutic fields thereby rendering crucial implications for maintaining the rights of the patient. The rights of the patients include equal access to healthcare from all quarters of the healthcare facility. The right to accept or deny treatment in conjunction with other rights such as formulation of advance directives is yet another key component of the prospective rights to be enjoyed by the patient. The right to information and communication prior to receiving therapeutic interventions is a vital necessity for the patients for procuring enough information related to the health that might affect the recovery process (Johnstone 2015). Thus the rights of the patient in the particular case were protected as far as practicable by accounting her physical treatment modalities and not just emphasizing her individual decision making ability and choices in receiving specific care. Quality care provision was not particularly compromised in the given case although informed decision making was quite limited with an effort to mitigate her psychological distress from knowing the actual truth. As per the empirical research findings, the salient features pertaining to healthcare facility include clashing of ethical principles, issues associated to communication, dearth of resources and quality of care provision. Improved ethics education for care providers will offer better service provision facility within a healthcare setting according to such research (Preshaw et al. 2015). Another crucial principle related to bioethics encompasses beneficence where the caregivers are under the obligation of providing maximum benefit. The aim of the caregiver relies on evaluating the risks and benefits properly in order to provide optimum care. Promotion of well-being is the chief objective of beneficence. The intention of doing good and what is necessary for the patient is the motto of the service providers in abiding by this virtue (Rocco et al. 2014). In the context of the given scenario the virtue of beneficence was followed to the core by the healthcare practitioners since they engaged in doing utmost good for the patient by not revealing the harsh truth of cancer diagnosis. Their efforts were directed to alleviate the mental trauma and panic of the patients from the negative perception and knowledge regarding the ensuing conditions from disease. The fact concealment by the healthcare workers was done for the ultimate good of the patient in the given scenario considering the fact that the patient might be profoundly impacted on knowing the actual truth. Therefore for the sake of the good of the patient and allay the possibility for any sort of mental distress from information related to her diagnosis of cancer was kept secret from Ms. Ann. Apparently though it might seem that the beneficence was not maintained, but on closer inspection it will become evident that the decision for hiding the truth of cancer detection from the pat ient was correct and prudent in terms of gaining long term benefits out of such act. Research has underpins the importance of framing a uniform evidence based ethical infrastructure to facilitate better patient care and clinical outcome. Promotion of correct and case appropriate decision making abilities among the nursing professionals in their professional practice and research are also among the projected purpose of such study (Mallari, Grace and Joseph 2016). Hence the act of the nurses as observed in Ms. Anns case seems perfectly justified. The act of inflicting the least possible harm in order to achieve a positive beneficial outcome is generally referred to as non-malfeasance. Harms and its effects are of pivotal importance in ethical decision making process during clinical practice. Research has highlighted on the unintentional short term and long term harm to be attributable to life saving treatment that enable the patient to recover from their diseased states quite peacefully without any hassle. The notion of doing less harm than doing more good forms the core ideology of this bioethical principle. This virtue in addition to other bioethical virtues guiding the moral code of conduct in a practicing medical professional needs proper evaluation and fixed set of principles to ease the task of the healthcare workers with their regular clinical discourse. Research has highlighted the need of planning ethics content in nursing curricula to improve moral sensitivity and moral reasoning among the students (Park et al. 2012 ). The nursing outcomes classification (NOC) has been indicated as a valid measurement technique to assess the situation of the terminally ill patients suffering from cancer possessing chronic or acute pain within a palliative care unit (Mello et al. 2016). In the given scenario, the nurses with the complete support and informed consent from the family members of Ms. Ann, a cancer patient made utmost effort to inflict least amount of harm to her. Their approach may be attributed to the fact that in order to prevent the risk of developing immense stress and agony from knowing that Ms. Ann was suffering from the incurable and grave disease of cancer, the nurses following repeated appeal from her family members refrained from exposing the truth to the patient. This was done for all good of the patient so that she does not suffer from further complication as a consequence to her diagnosis. Although the nurses are exposed to a situation of ethical dilemma under such circumstances, yet they are found to do commendable jobs by taking measures of not doing harm to the patient. Bolstering ethical awareness is of surmountable significance under such conditions to recognize and acknowledge the unique interests and wishes of the individual patients receiving care under medical supervision of the nurses (Milliken and Grace 2015). Further in the context of hospital setting safety education programs within an organizational framework effective safety nursing activities has been recommended to usher awareness pertaining to patient safety culture (Kang and Park 2016). Hence taking into consideration of the above criteria, the conduct of the nurses in the given scenario was found to be in line with the principle of non-malfeasance. For nursing practice, abiding by the existing rules and legislations is widely reckoned as an essential prerequisite to determine the accountability of the practicing nursing professional by virtue of predefined set of competency standards that are commonly followed in most of the nations worldwide. These laws serve to act as sources of guidance for the nurses in medico-legal cases and also set limitations to independent nursing actions. Maintenance of standards of nursing practice along with differentiation being made between the nurses responsibilities from other healthcare professionals is also the function of the laws concerning nursing practice. Nursing laws are generally the outcome of statutes or legislation that are stringently regulated and amended from time to time by a governing authority (Krautscheid 2014). In nursing practice, serious violation of the relevant laws often leads to criminal or legal prosecution depending upon the seriousness of the situation. Breach of conduct in professional nursing practice often accompanies situation where safety, privacy, confidentiality and dignity of the patients are not adequately addressed thereby paving the ways for criminal prosecution. Nurses are generally held accountable for making sound, professional judgments, anticipating foreseeable damage and being answerable for the actions. For achieving the optimum clinical outcomes relevant to a particular case a holistic mode of treatment strategy is recommended. Collaborative approach for improvising treatment schedule in coalition with the moral and ethical principles endeavor to harbor maximum benefits in clinical nursing practice (Grace 2013). Other guiding principles and standards for practice in nursing emphasizes on proper documentation of medical records, strict monitoring of the drug admin istration and undertaking a person centered care approach unique to each patient to ensure quality healthcare service. Maintenance of privacy and confidentiality of the retrieved patient data in keeping with the human rights and informed consent protocol are the two vital legal considerations in nursing practice and the Human Rights Act (1998) and Data Protection Act (2003) may be referred in this context (Mair 2014). In the given scenario all the legal implications were followed adequately to ensure the best possible clinical outcomes in the cancer patient. The case of Ms. Ann can be further analyzed on the basis of the deontological philosophy of normative ethical theory. It states that right or wrong actions do not account for the consequences; instead they act as indicators of agreement with moral norms and rules. Intention is the matter of consideration in such theories to judge the rationality of a particular task. In short actions determine the goodness or badness out of a scenario. Telling the truth and keeping promises are perceived as integral to comply by a set of moral decorum even for situations where harm might occur. Democratic professionalism has been detected as an important contributing factor in establishing social justice in this regard (Thompson 2014). Following the given case scenario, the deontological philosophy was not fully satisfied as the nurses intentionally refrained from telling the truth to the patient regarding her cancer diagnosis. It was a conscious decision on the nurses parts to not reveal the truth with a specific purpose of reducing and mitigating the burden of psychological distress in the patient. Thus this theory of judging the moral rightness of an act in terms of the intrinsic moral value of the act itself through deontology was found to be incongruent and inconclusive in Ms. Anns context. Deeper probe into the theories guiding the ethical conduct of a person and pertinent to healthcare settings in case of the practicing nurses, the concept of utilitarianism may be considered for discussion. It is based on the principle that an action is morally right if it has the ability to generate greater amount of good or happiness than any other possible act. Thus the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility (Qi, Xu and Shan 2013). Production of the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people is another key feature of the utilitarianism philosophy and essentially adopts a teleological approach to ethics and supports in favor of judging an action based upon its consequences. Careful, objective and impartial evaluations of the consequences are some of the other vital concepts relevant to this theory (Alligood 2013). Ms. Anns case study corroborates with the philosophy of the utilitarianism where actions were very much intended to harbor optimum benefits from concealment of truth from the patient to do ultimate good to her. Such decisions reflected upon bringing happiness and relief to majority of the persons involved in the case encompassing the patient, her family members and the attending healthcare providers. The patient did not have to face the trauma of knowing the truth while the family was relived of not informing their loved one about the tragedy of the terminal illness. The nurses were also happy to perform to the best of their capability of what was expected out of them under such demanding scenario. Conclusion In fine assessing from the situations that had thwarted the nurse to encounter a perception of ethical dilemma, a proper feedback in handling similar scenarios may be obtained. The nurse performed case suited responsibility through prudence and pragmatism to ensure the best possible remedy and benefit for the patient named Ms. Ann diagnosed with cancer without doing any harm that might have repercussive outcomes in future. Thus beneficence and non-maleficence virtue was accurately addressed. Justice was done in this case as it was fair to make the patient unaware about her specific problem for her own good as disclosure of the actual reality might delay her chances of recovery and put her into more complication because of potential risks of psychological setbacks (Cherry and Jacob 2015). The right action for the immediate good of the patient was done through concealments of the facts pertaining to her medical condition that was in line with the philosophical theory of utilitarianism. However the near and dear ones of the patient comprising of her family members were made aware about her situation and obligatory duty by the nurses was performed in compliance with the deontological concept. Self dignity and rights of the patient was also maintained in the clinical handling situation that may be rationalized in the context of preservation of autonomy (Kuhse and Singer 2013). Hence, overall consideration of the patient circumstances pertaining to the given scenario provides insightful knowledge regarding patient handling appropriate to a specific case and in offering evidence based care in clinical setting. The professional codes of conduct, ethical and legal issues in healthcare are thus imperative to provide maximum healthcare utility for patients demanding critical care services facilitating the possibility of recuperation in such cases. References Alligood, M.R., 2013.Nursing theory: Utilization application. Elsevier Health Sciences. Anon, (2016). [online] Available at: https://www.healthprofessionals.gov.sg/.../snb/.../Code%20of%20Ethics%20and%20Professi [Accessed 25 Nov. 2016]. Apcsnbcbmp, G. and Grace, P.J., 2013. Nursing Ethics and Professional Responsibility in Advanced Practice. Beauchamp, T.L., 2016. Principlism in Bioethics. InBioethical Decision Making and Argumentation(pp. 1-16). Springer International Publishing. Bossaert, L.L., Perkins, G.D., Askitopoulou, H., Raffay, V.I., Greif, R., Haywood, K.L., Mentzelopoulos, S.D., Nolan, J.P., Van de Voorde, P., Xanthos, T.T. and Lippert, F.K., 2015. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015: Section 11. The ethics of resuscitation and end-of-life decisions. Cherry, B. and Jacob, S.R., 2015.Contemporary nursing: Issues, trends, management. Elsevier Health Sciences. Cole, C., Wellard, S. and Mummery, J., 2014. Problematising autonomy and advocacy in nursing.Nursing ethics, p.0969733013511362. Elwyn, G., Frosch, D., Thomson, R., Joseph-Williams, N., Lloyd, A., Kinnersley, P., Cording, E., Tomson, D., Dodd, C., Rollnick, S. and Edwards, A., 2012. Shared decision making: a model for clinical practice.Journal of general internal medicine,27(10), pp.1361-1367. Gastmans, C., 2013. Dignity-enhancing nursing care A foundational ethical framework.Nursing Ethics,20(2), pp.142-149. Hood, L., 2013.Leddy Pepper's conceptual bases of professional nursing. Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Johnstone, M.J., 2015.Bioethics: a nursing perspective. Elsevier Health Sciences. Kang, J.M. and Park, J.S., 2016. Relationship between Perception of Patient Safety Culture and Performance for Safety Care Activity in Rehabilitation Hospital Nurse.The Korean Journal of Rehabilitation Nursing,19(1), pp.12-19. Krautscheid, L.C., 2014. Defining professional nursing accountability: A literature review.Journal of Professional Nursing,30(1), pp.43-47. Kuhse, H. and Singer, P. eds., 2013.A companion to bioethics. John Wiley Sons. Lo, B., 2012.Resolving ethical dilemmas: a guide for clinicians. Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Mair, J., 2014. An introduction to legal aspects of nursing practice.Contexts of Nursing, p.167. Mallari, M.S.N., Grace, M. and Joseph, D., 2016. Ethical Frameworks for Decision-Making in Nursing Practice and Research: An Integrative Review. McLennon, S.M., Uhrich, M., Lasiter, S., Chamness, A.R. and Helft, P.R., 2013. Oncology nurses narratives about ethical dilemmas and prognosis-related communication in advanced cancer patients.Cancer nursing,36(2), pp.114-121. Mello, B.S., Massutti, T.M., Longaray, V.K., Trevisan, D.F. and de Ftima Lucena, A., 2016. Applicability of the Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC) to the evaluation of cancer patients with acute or chronic pain in palliative care.Applied Nursing Research,29, pp.12-18. Milliken, A. and Grace, P., 2015. Nurse ethical awareness Understanding the nature of everyday practice.Nursing ethics, p.0969733015615172. Park, M., Kjervik, D., Crandell, J. and Oermann, M.H., 2012. The relationship of ethics education to moral sensitivity and moral reasoning skills of nursing students.Nursing ethics,19(4), pp.568-580. Preshaw, D.H., Brazil, K., McLaughlin, D. and Frolic, A., 2015. Ethical issues experienced by healthcare workers in nursing homes Literature review.Nursing ethics, p.0969733015576357. Qi, H.J., Xu, L.Z. and Shan, K., 2013. Analysis on Application of Utilitarianism in Health Decision-Making.Chinese Health Economics,9, p.007. Rocco, G., Affonso, D.D., Mayberry, L.J., Stievano, A., Alvaro, R. and Sabatino, L., 2014. Global Qualitative Nursing Research. ten Have, H.A. and Gordijn, B., 2014.Global bioethics(pp. 3-18). Springer Netherlands. Thompson, J.L., 2014. Discourses of social justice: examining the ethics of democratic professionalism in nursing.Advances in Nursing Science,37(3), pp.E17-E34. Walker, B.R. and Colledge, N.R., 2013.Davidson's principles and practice of medicine. 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Social Identity Theory and Realistic Group Conflict Theory Essay Example

Social Identity Theory and Realistic Group Conflict Theory Paper A group comprises two or more individuals, who interact with each other, share common goals, are interdependent and acknowledge their formation as a group. People join groups for several reasons. Amongst these reasons are, for interpersonal needs, support and commitment and group synergy. Interpersonal needs include ones desire for inclusion, where the individual is desirous of establishing an identity with others, which is often used as a way of self-verification. Individuals need affection and joining a group is an excellent way of establishing relationships and making friends. Another component of interpersonal needs, is a sense of control, where the individual wants to prove his/her abilities and being in a group serves as an outlet to demonstrate these abilities. Support and commitment is important to an individual, as he/she may want to undertake a project but finds that he/she would be far more motivated, if working in a group. Also, the support given to each group member, by the other members reinforces commitment to the project being undertaken. Group Synergy refers to the idea that two or more heads are better than one, and that groups are more capable of producing higher quality work than the individual would. Group Synergy also recognizes that groups make better decisions than individuals. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Identity Theory and Realistic Group Conflict Theory specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Social Identity Theory and Realistic Group Conflict Theory specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Social Identity Theory and Realistic Group Conflict Theory specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Groups go through five (5) stages of development. It is important to note that to move from one stage to another can only be achieved on the basis of the success of the goals of the preceding stage. The first stage is forming. At this primary level, group members come together and each individual collects data about the similarities and differences of the other members. The major task of forming is orientation, where its members become oriented to the group task(s) as well as each other. Discussion is centered on the approach(es), as well as similar concerns about the task(s). The second stage is storming. As the groups members attempt to organize the task(s), conflict is inevitable, due to personal beliefs or ideas. At this stage, members compromise their own beliefs to suit the groups organization. Because of fear of exposure or failure, there will be an increased desire for structural clarification and commitment. Questions concerning leadership and responsibility roles arise during this stage, as well as the reward system and criteria for evaluation. Once these concerns are addressed, the group moves on to the third stage, norming. Norming is characterized by cohesion. At this stage, members are concerned about problem solving and are willing to change preconceived ideas, on the basis of facts which are presented by other members and actively ask questions of one another. During this stage, members begin to identify with one another and acknowledge that the group is working in a unit. This contributes to the development of group cohesion. Assuming that the goal(s) of the three preceding stages are accomplished, the group moves on to stage four, which is performing. At this level, the need for group approval is past and members are capable of working independently, in sub-groups or as total unit with equal facility. Group unity is complete, morale is high and loyalty is intense. There is support in problem-solving and an emphasis on achievement. The final stage, adjourning, involves the termination of tasks and disengagement from relationships. Members are recognized and acknowledged for their contribution, participation and achievement, and are now ready to part company and disintegrate as a single unit. Social Identity Theory and Realistic Group Conflict Theory have different assumptions about the nature of groups. Social Identity Theory was developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979 and 3 central ideas; categorization, identification and comparison. In order to understand our social environment, one has to categorize individuals. For example, to classify an individual as a black person is quite vague. However, when the same individual is classified as Jamaican, teacher or Baptist, the individual takes on a clearer meaning. Identification carries two meanings. At times, individuals may refer to themselves as we versus them and at other times I versus him/her. This indicates that there are times when individuals think of themselves as members of a group and times when the individuals think of themselves as a single unit. When individuals refer to themselves as we, the we represents the individuals in-group, or group to which the individual belongs to. When the individual refers to them, the them is the out-group, or group that the individual does not belong to. The final component of Social Identity Theory is social comparison. Individuals need to feel good about them themselves and so in the context of being part of the in-group, the individual seeks to maximize the difference between the in-group and the out-group so that the in-group is always reflected in a more positive light than then out-group. In 1971, Tajfel et al conducted an experiment which they called the Minimal Group Experiment. This experiment was conducted to ascertain whether competition was a necessary condition for ethnocentrism, the belief that ones in-group is superior to ones out-group. The experiment used a group of Bristol school boys as its subjects. These boys were show slide projections with varying numbers of dots. The boys were told that there some people in the group who were under estimators and over estimators of the dots being displayed. The second task involved splitting the boys into two groups, which they were made to think that one group consisted of over estimators and the other group consisted of under estimators. What the boys did not know, was that in actuality, they were selected randomly. The task was to allocate points redeemable for money. What was discovered was that in-group favoritism was displayed even though each boy did not know who the other in-group members were. They still allocated more points to members of the in-group. Even though these same boys were linked in various ways, through sport teams or as neighbors, this did not have any meaning or impact on the way they allocated points and demonstrated in-group bias. A second experiment was conducted to endorse the findings of the preceding experiment. The boys were shown a series of paintings by two artists, Klee and Kadinsky. They were asked to choose their preference and were then divided into two groups. Again, the boys were unaware that the groups were not being divided according to artist preference. Again, the boys demonstrated in-group favoritism by allocating more points to in-group members. Based on these two experiments, Tajfel concluded that indeed, by categorizing the boys into meaningless groups caused blatant discrimination. A more recent display of Social Identity Theory in action is the of the Serbs uniting in solidarity to support their leader Slobodan Milosevic as he went before the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia. While Milosevics policies had contributed to brutal war, economic ruin and widespread corruption, Serbs saw themselves as a group/nation going to trial, instead of Milosevic as an individual on trial. The trial came across as a threat to Serbs as a unit. They could not escape the social identity of being a serb, so the best mechanism they could use was to categorize themselves and distance themselves from the out-group, which are western countries. Realistic Group Conflict Theory is the idea that prejudice sometimes stems from competition between groups for scarce resources. In 1961, Sherif et al, set up the Robbers Cave Experiment. This experiment was a summer camp which consisted of 22 boys from similar backgrounds and family structure, who were all Caucasian. The boys were not acquainted prior to the camp, so they were allowed to get acquainted with each other, by sharing in various activities. The boys were then split into two groups; the Rattlers and the Eagles. Each group independently engaged in their own activities, which led to a more intimate relationship, where they had developed codes, jargon and nicknames. The next stage involved pitting both groups against each other for a prize, to determine what would happen when they came together after bonding with their own in-group. This was done via an organized tournament which included a treasure hunt and a baseball game. By the end of the tournament there was visible hostility as the groups began to call each other names and launched a food fight in the dining room. In a 1949 study, one school of thought for reducing hostility was to introduce a third group, which would represent the common enemy to both groups. This solution was not desirable to Sherif, as he thought it would widen the inter-group conflict to a larger scale. In order to resolve the hostile conflict, Sherif noted that the groups need more than just contact. They needed a series of goals which could only be accomplished when both groups efforts were combined. These goals are termed super ordinate goals. The series involved a water supply crisis, where both groups had to locate the fault by working together. A second goal which was set up is the hiring of a film. The camp had no money to pay for it, however, if both groups combined their financial resources they would be able to rent the film for the benefit of all. The third challenge was towing a broken down food truck together, using a rope they had used previously in a tug-of-war game, to get the truck started. The realization of success from working together gradually reduced conflict to the point where the boys became friends, from these experiences. This experiment supports that the use of super ordinate goals, which means that both groups share the same agenda of accomplishing a specific goal together, can reduce conflict. While both theories seek to reduce group conflict, Social Identity Theory leans towards a cognitive approach of in-group bias. If group members believe that they are in a group with others who share similar identities and goals, then bias towards in-group members exist. The reward does not have to be a physical one, as the aim is towards achieving high self-esteem. Group members will do all possible to preserve their superiority so that their self-esteem will always be high. Through re-categorizing individuals, prejudice and conflict may be reduced, as individuals tend to categorize in reference to self. This would mean that each time a group is re-categorized, individuals would be identifying with each group he/she is being classified with, hence reducing out-group discrimination since the individual would be identifying with others at different times. Realistic Group Conflict Theory leans towards a behavioral approach to conflict resolution, as demonstrated in the Robbers Cave Experiment. Initially, it was a case of survival of the fittest as they groups clamored for the scarce resource (tournament prize). However, through their collective actions, they were able to pool physical and financial resources to benefit both groups. It is through series behavioral actions that both groups realized they could accomplish the super ordinate goals set before them. Another difference between Social Identity Theory and Realistic Group Conflict Theory is that Social Identity Theory places an emphasis on social competition, which has more to do with pride and self-esteem, while Realistic Group Conflict Theory uses objective competition which is vying for an object of social reality.

Meteorologists Are Scientists Who Study the Weather

Meteorologists Are Scientists Who Study the Weather While most people know a meteorologist is a person who is trained in the atmospheric or weather sciences, many may not be aware that there is more to a meteorologists job than simply forecasting the weather. A meteorologist is a person who has received a specialized education to use scientific principles to explain, understand, observe, and forecast the earths atmospheric phenomena and how this affects the earth and life on the planet. Weathercasters, on the other hand, do not have specialized educational backgrounds and merely disseminate weather information and forecasts prepared by others. Although not many people do it, its rather easy to  become a meteorologist- all you need to do is earn a bachelors, masters, or even doctorate in meteorology or in atmospheric sciences. After completing a degree in the field, meteorologists can apply to work for science research centers, news stations, and a variety of other government jobs related to climatology. Jobs in the Field of Meteorology While meteorologists are well-known for issuing your forecasts, this is only one example of the jobs that they do- they also report on the weather, prepare weather warnings, study long-term weather patterns, and even teach others about meteorology as professors. Broadcast meteorologists  report the weather for television, which is a popular career choice as it is entry-level, which means you only need a Bachelors degree to do it (or sometimes, no degree at all); on the other hand, forecasters are responsible for preparing and issuing weather forecasts as well as watches and warnings, to the public. Climatologists  look at long-term weather patterns and data to help assess past climate and to predict future climate trends while research meteorologists include storm chasers and hurricane hunters and require a Masters degree or a Ph.D. Research meteorologists generally work for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the  National Weather Service  (NWS), or another government agency. Some meteorologists, like  forensic  or  consulting meteorologists, are hired for their expertise in the field to help other professionals. Forensic meteorologists investigate claims for insurance companies on past weather or research past weather conditions pertaining to court cases in a court of law while consulting meteorologists are hired on by retailers, film crews, large corporations, and other non-weather companies to provide weather guidance on a variety of projects. Still, other meteorologists are more specialized.  Incident Meteorologists work with firefighters and emergency management personnel by providing  onsite weather support during wildfires and other natural disasters while  tropical  meteorologists focus on tropical storms and hurricanes. Finally, those with a passion for meteorology and education can help to create future generations of meteorologists by becoming a meteorology teacher or professor. Salaries and Compensation Meteorologist salaries vary depending on position (entry level or experienced) and the employer (federal or private) but typically range from $31,000 to over $150,000 per year; most meteorologists working in the United States can expect to make $51,000 on average. Meteorologists in the United States are most often employed by either the National Weather Service, which offers between 31 to 65 thousand dollars per year; Rockwell Collins, which offers 64 to 129 thousand dollars per year; or the U.S. Air Force (USAF), which offers salaries of 43 to 68 thousand annually. There are  many reasons to become a meteorologist, but ultimately, decided to become a scientist who studies climate and the weather should come down to your passion for the field- if you love weather data, meteorology might be the ideal career choice for you.

Color Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Color - Research Paper Example Color may be quantified and described by the extent to which they stimulate different types of cone cells (Travis, 2003). This is because color perception stems from different spectrum sensitivity of various cone cells in the retina to various parts of the spectrum. The physiological or physical color quantifications do not fully describe the color appearance and its psychophysical perception. The science of color is referred to as chromatography, color science or chromatics (Farndon, 2003). It involves color perception by the brain and human eye. Human perception of color originates from composites of light, photons’ energy spectrum entering the eye. The retina contains photosensitive cells on the back of the eye’s the inner surface. These photosensitive cells are composed of pigments absorbing visible light (Savage, 1998). There are two classes of photosensitive cells: cones and rods. Cones are responsible for human ability to distinguish between various colors (Klein er, 2004). On the other hand, the rods sense light intensity variations and are effective in dim light. Rods sense the flux of no photon energy, the incident photons. Therefore, whenever there is a dim light, human eye do not perceive colored objects as shades of color, but as shades of grey (Travis, 2003). Diagram of color and light Perception of color in the retina is done by photoreceptor cones which are sensitive to photons whose energy widely extend beyond the green, blue, and red spectrum portions (Kleiner, 2004). Color vision is often possible because of the differing photon energy sensitivity of the sets of cones (Savage, 1998). For every flux of photons or color signal, a ration of response in the different sets of cones is triggered. This ration is what permits color perception. During the day, human vision is effectively mostly in the blue-green where the spectrum of the sun is in its maximum region (Travis, 2003). Color sensation primarily depends on light composition, a mixture of colored light and white light (in itself can be wavelength mixture, like purple’s case) (Farndon, 2003). The colored light may have dominant hue or wavelength. The degree to which the wavelength dominates is referred to as chroma, saturation. This saturation, chroma decreases as the white light deletes the wavelength. There are 3 receptors that respond to various wavelengths in the eye. This results in attempts to chart colors via e primary lights mixture. A good number of colors are produces through mixing lights originating from the 3 primary lights. However, not all colors can be produced in this manner (Savage, 1998). Color vision development in human beings is an interesting process of evolution (Kleiner, 2004). The human eye is not in a linear straightforward development. Development of color vision begins as a light sensitive pigment and then differentiates on a smaller creature to create structures that are sensitive to light (Savage, 1998). These light se nsitive structures disperse in the forming eyeball and turns to be the retina. Initially, retina was like a moving sensor. However, it developed the ability to delineate fine details and to see color. The evolution of the eye and color perception is a standard development seen in all vertebrates and many non-vertebrates. So what is color? Why does retina develop ability to see color? (Farndon, 2003). Color is a visual perception that corresponds in human to the categories referred to as blue,

Competition A Factor to Achieve an Excellence Research Paper

Competition A Factor to Achieve an Excellence - Research Paper Example It is a fact that in order to achieve excellence, it is important to raise the bar by competing in a head-on manner. What this will do is to tell the people around this individual that he means business and should always be respected for what he does and how he commits to things which are on the topmost priority for his own self. These are significant undertakings that shall be understood in order to bring in the success which can only come up when the competition has been realized upon. Therefore what is most necessary here is an awakening that competition will bring in the complete usage of strengths and resources, which will eventually tie in a point of success. Since competition is usually doubled with experience that an individual has within his folds, it is always good to realize this point in essence. One must comprehend that business avenues are no different and they have the same competitive rivalry existing within their folds. What is different however is the fact that with in the business, there is a collective effort which is not the case within the individual endeavors that take place on an individual level. Competition is the basis of attaining new achievements within one’s own repertoire, and it helps in assisting one to fathom how he can explore his truest self within the changing dynamics. It must be believed here that competition brings in more good for the people than bad, as it assists one in comprehending the finer details with one’s own strengths and what one can achieve in a given period of time. It is also a fact that competition will raise the bar of expectations within the people as far as an individual is concerned. It makes the people realize how significant this individual is, and how imperative it is to comprehend how this person will take on new ideas and resolve conflicts that mar his very domains. The competition asks of the people to give their best because they want to look different and unique yet excitingly fres h within their approach. What this means is the fact that competition shall bring in success for the individual under consideration as he will derive the best mileage for his own self when he compares himself with the people around him. If people know that they are not within a competitive regime, they will fall flat and not find out what their real strengths are, and how they would move ahead with the changing times. People think differently when they know that they are undergoing a competitive exercise. They start to believe that their undertakings are being closely monitored and that they need to give in their very best time and again, so as to bring value and quality within their tasks and undertakings. When a person does not involve himself within competition with some form of task that he has set his eyes upon to do it in the best manner possible, there would be staleness around him, and he would experience absolutely no motivation to go out there and make a difference, for hi s own self as well as the people around him in entirety. People view competition in a number of different ways and settings – all of which depends a great deal on how they view life and its varied undertakings.

The Rules Of The Sociological Method Response Philosophy Essay

The Rules Of The Sociological Method Response Philosophy Essay Over time the study and application of social sciences have become to be viewed differently in comparison to those in the realm of natural sciences. By definition and practise Social sciences rely more on subjective details and inference than do those of the natural sciences which rely on empirical data to derive conclusions. Emile Durkheim sought to establish rules and practises for the methods used to discover new information utilized by the social sciences. With his publication of the book, The Rules of the Sociological Method, Durkheims theory of the social fact was revealed and presented as a practical and workable model for utilization within the discipline of the study of social behaviour. Durkheim goes on within his writings to break down his theory and to outline the different rules. Seemingly the most vital section establishes the Rules for the Constitution of Social Types. Social Types is a significant concept and the section that defines it is most important, this is due to the clarity in which brings it to his thesis and because it aids in relating the theory of social facts to particular societies and species. It is for these reasons that one can clearly see the concept and refinement of social types is the most vital piece to Emile Durkheims theory of social facts. Durkheims theory on Social Facts is based upon the thesis that there is a category of facts which present very special characteristics: they consist of manners of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual. Which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise control over him. This definition shows that Durkheim is focusing on sociology and the main forms of socialization; acting, thinking and feeling and how they control an individual. Along with this definition Durkheim continues to refine his outline that a social fact is a thing that stems from an idea not an idea from a thing.(page 60). From this frame of reference Durkheim further explores the social fact and the many other variables that make up its sum. Durkheim identifies that social facts are divided into two separate groups: normal and pathological. Normal social facts are attributes or characteristics that are found in most if not all of a population, while pathological social facts are found within a limited number of the population and are sometimes only experienced for a brief period of time. With this clarity one can begin to see the importance of social types and its relation to Durkheims thesis as you cannot categorize something as normal or pathological until you are fully aware of its social type. Simply, this is due to the fact that you will not know how common or uncommon a particular social fact may be to a population until it has been identified and categorized. The importance of social types however begins to be more clearly portrayed when analyzing the rules for the constitution of social types. Durkheim implies that human beings are not all the same and suggests many different groups of species exist amongst us. He does his best to distinguish himself from the historian and philosopher who both view society in much different ways. The historian looks at every event and occurrence within society in sequence to that particular time as unique and will not be repeated. On the other hand is the philosopher, who views humans as different groups who are governed by laws and justice. These laws aid in taking humans through the many stages of growth and evolution into more complex and modern societies. Sociology takes a much different view and approach than these two disciplines. Durkheim believes that cities are made up of many different types of species with the inference that many of these species are similar in several ways. Durkheim theorizes that these differences arise within each particular species and calls them social facts affording each a classification accordingly to the particular species. In my frame of reference and after having been exposed to Durkheims concepts I find myself supporting Durkheims views as practical and realistic of the three, in accordance to how society is really made up. The historian sees no relation in anything while the philosopher believes that laws applied to certain societies are what dictate how that society will progress, sociology seems to be a medium to these two schools of thought. Conceptually this shows that social types can be seen in many different ways of thinking and is not limited to sociology or any discipline for that matter. Durkheim uses these social types to apply social facts with this aiding in expl aining how and why certain things occur socially. Durkheim correlates social fact with a very heavy reliance on social types. While Durkheim does an excellent job in outlining and creating his theory regarding social facts, he does encounter some problems. One issue he identifies and discusses is not how many different species there may be, but what exactly is the best way to go about classifying them. Durkheim states, We shall begin by classifying societies according to the degree of organisation they manifest, taking as a base the perfectly simple society or the single-segment society. Within these classes different varieties will be distinguished, according to whether a complete coalescence of the initial segments takes place. Durkheim describes the idea of classifying different societies by their organisation as a whole. Ultimately, categorizing the seemingly more advanced societies as superior in comparison to others that do not appear to be as advanced. There may be some critique given to this idea, that Durkheim may believe a society has little going on while quite the opposite is actually taking place. The term simple is used to describe these lower societies, which one may interpret this classification as labelling this group as primitive. One could say that the difference in language, culture and practice creates a barrier and the automatic classification of simple is wrong. Still I must digress; one can see the importance that this classification has to Durkheims theory. The fact that dependencies exist within these societies makes it so that modern societies must rely on resources and labour that are more complex in comparison to the more simple societies who must also rely on resources and labour fitted to suit their needs. The impact that the social type has can be seen clearly as the theory of the social fact is defined and explained. It is needed to describe and categorize the many different species of people so that the social facts of that particular society may be analyzed and discovered. If it were not for social types, the classification of normal and pathological would cease to exist. This would ultimately make it impossible to accurately identify and outline social facts for specific populations. The social type proves that it is a large division within the theory of the social fact. It is this factor that ultimately ties the different thoughts and ideas together. This is why, for me, I view the concept and utilization of social type as the most vital piece to Emile Durkheims theory of social facts.

Israel P.L.O. Peace Treaty Essay -- Middle East Politics Political Ess

Israel P.L.O. Peace Treaty The Middle East has always been known as the Holy Land, the land of the Bible. For centuries, prophets have walked there, nations have collided and conquerors have come and gone. While Jews claim a three thousand-year-old attachment to this ancient land, Arabs also stake their devotion. In 1993, these two peoples, involved in a tragic conflict that has lasted more than half a century, saw the possibility of a new beginning. It was called the Oslo Accord, and it transformed the political realities of the Middle East (Peres, p.2) However, there have been many turbulent events that have followed the signing of the Accord, events that have undermined the agreement and are threatening to drive Israelis and Arabs apart once again. Since the founding of Israel in 1948, there has been continuous conflict between Israel and the Arab states. This conflict has been marked by six bloody wars. In 1867, during the six-day war of Syria, Jordan and Egypt, Israel captured the West Bank, Sinai and the Gaza strip. Subsequently, a population of over a million Palestinian Arabs, together with their land was now under Israeli control. (Spencer, p.70) It was during this time that a Palestinian leader emerged, Yasser Arafat. Labeled a terrorist by Israel and the United States, he and his Palestine Liberation Organization called for the eviction of Israel from the occupied territories by force of arms. In 1979, Israel returned Sinai to Egypt by a peace treaty. Although Egypt’s Prime Minister Anwar Sadat was assassinated in 1982 by anti-peace forces, the peace still remained between the two countries. This paved the way for negotiations with Jordan, Syria, and the Palestines. (Hunter, p.17-20) However, Israel’s continued occupation of the Palestinian territories led to the uprising of Arab youth in the West Bank and Gaza, known as the Intifada. For the Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, the Intifada provided them with a new and assertive Palestinian identity. Israelis were also growing tired of their roles as occupiers, as soldiers trained to defend their country in war were finding themselves aiming their weapons at rock throwing teenagers. Many Israelis were disillusioned and desperately eager for a solution. When the United States and Russia initiated talks in Madrid and Washington at the end of the Cold War, it seemed that peace was at... ...alestinians a path of opportunities has been shown. It is a difficult path, but unless it is pursued, generations might pass before anyone will attempt such a peace process again. Works Cited: â€Å"Chronology of Bombing Attacks Following September 1993 Accord†. www.Nando.com, 1996. â€Å"Chronology of PLO-Israeli Peace Moves†. www.Newsobserver.com, 1995. Corelli, Rae. â€Å"Days of Reckoning† in Maclean’s Magazine p.34-35. Toronto, Canada: Maclean Hunter Limited. September 5, 1996 Finkelstein, Norman G. The Rise and Fall of Palestine- A Personal Account of the Intifada Years. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996. Hunter, Robert F. The Palestinian Uprising. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995. â€Å"Israel Mourns Bombing Victims†. www.nando.com, 1996. Peres, Shimon. The New Middle East. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1995. Silver, Eric. â€Å"A Martyr to Peace† in Maclean’s Magazine p.26-28. Toronto, Canada: Maclean Hunter Limited. November 13, 1995 Spencer, Dr. William. The Middle East. Connecticut: The Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc., 1994 â€Å"U.S. Envoy Organizes Top Israeli, PLO Meeting†. www.lycosnews.com, October, 1997

Fish- Beneath the Surface (An article for ‘Future of Fish’ magazine)

Natural cod stocks going down. There has been much press coverage of the decline in natural cod stocks due to over fishing in the North Sea. I like my cod and chips and so was quite concerned about this. It may be too late to get the numbers back up to 1970's levels but less documented by the press, is the rapid growth of mariculture, the cultivation of marine organisms for food, which retailers say could ‘revolutionise the fishing industry' (2). I visited the Manx Mariculture fish hatchery to investigate the principles behind fish farming and soon discovered that it was not without its problems. As my guide, Rick Fullerton, explained, a bacterial problem in the live feed meant that the hatchery faced a crisis in the year 2006 when only a few hundred cod were produced instead of the target 1 million. This is a common problem in mariculture and there is the potential for exciting new developments in the production of live feed which could eliminate this problem in the future. Use of live feed as an answerMuscular System: Muscle Metabolism In order to kill bacteria, live feed may be disinfected or treated with UV rays (6). A recent study (Cutts, Sherwood and Treasurer) showed that bacterial numbers were lower in tanks of live feed treated with Pyceze, often used as a disinfectant of water and a preservative in cosmetic products, and the survival of larvae was 6.1% higher (6). Other future developments in the production of live feed may include using rotifers which match the nutritional requirements of the larvae. This could be achieved by finding new methods of enrichment. Research in collaboration with Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) has been carried out into developing enrichment methods using vitamin C, bacteria and fungi (7). Rotifers: These multicellular animals are 200-300à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½m in length and are kept at a density of around 1500 per ml (3). They supply the nutritional requirements of fish larvae by retaining nutrients which are then passed on to the larvae (5), ensuring rapid growth. As I go round, a putrid smell laces the air. Dark and bitter, it hangs heavily in the small room. The humidity makes it difficult to breath. Four tanks prevail to one side, overbearing. This is the live feed room of the Manx Mariculture fish hatchery. I peer closer to make out the reptilian green contents of the tanks. Here, rotifers, used as live feed, are grown in aerated tanks on a diet of yeast and algae at 25à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C (3), optimum conditions for growth. The cod and turbot larvae farmed at the site are reared on these for up to 20 days during which time it is not possible to produce food pellets small enough for their consumption. To small to be seen with the naked eye, rotifers are an excellent replacement of the fish's natural diet, zooplankton (copepods) and they are enriched to supply the nutritional requirements of the larvae. Nutrition in the diet is essential in ensuring optimum growth. Brine shrimps: With my knowledge of cod limited to its appearance in a plastic take-out box, the sight of the fish at 20 days, with their dark silken bodies deftly navigating the water, surprises me. At this age, they are around 7-8 mm in length and are fed for a further 20 days on brine shrimp, or Artemia, 500-700 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½m in length (3). By using a specially formulated diet for the Artemia, their nutritional content is increased to maximise the growth of the larvae. This also reduces pigmentation problems in the turbot, a species of fish I had not previously heard of. My first impression of them is that they bear a certain resemblance to the shape of a stingray. They line the bottom of the holding tanks, their slender bodies overlapping, producing a carpet of shimmering grey. A tight ship: Nevertheless, live feed production is extremely expensive. To improve efficiency at Manx Mariculture, rotifer production is carried out as a continuous process. Future developments are needed in the production and reliability of rotifer and Artemia whilst reducing the cost of the feeds. Recent studies (Lubzens E, Zmora O, Barr Y, 2001) have shown that the rotifers, B. plicatilis and B. rotundiformis, are two species of rotifer most suited to mariculture. Fish and chips – a change of diet As cod are cannibalistic, grading is carried out at 2 to 4 months using filters of increasing width to separate out different sizes into different tanks. This increases the survival rate of smaller, weaker cod which may not have survived in the wild. As it is not economically viable to produce live feed in large amounts as the fish mature, they are weaned off this and onto a diet of hard fishmeal pellets. This is achieved by gradually increasing the ratio of hard pellets to live food, fed once a day using automated feeders suspended above the tanks. Made from smaller species of fish and crustaceans unfit for human consumption, standard fishmeal has a content of 65-67% protein and 12% fat (8). There may be some dispute over the validity of this data as it is from an internet site and the source is not clear, therefore it cannot be guaranteed that the information is entirely accurate. Fishmeal contains proteins, lipids, minerals and vitamins but very little carbohydrate. Its close composition to that of the fish's natural diet makes it an excellent alternative (8). Fishmeal increases feed efficiency and growth due to a greater nutrient uptake and absorption. It also provides a high amount of energy per unit weight (8). Lipids in the diet provide phospholipids and fatty acids required for optimum growth and development. They are also important in the structure and function of cell membranes. They can be easily digested and have a high energy content which is important as the diet contains little carbohydrate. This is most likely because there is limited availability of carbohydrates in marine environments (9). If the diet does not provide enough energy, protein needed for growth will be broken down instead which increases the costs of fish farming. Protein is needed in the diet as it provides the 10 essential amino acids which the fish cannot synthesis. Fishmeal also contains minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and magnesium and vitamins including the B-complex (8). There are, however, ethical concerns over the use of fishmeal as some argue that for every tonne of farmed fish produced, 5 tonnes of fishmeal are used in the process. On the other hand, fishmeal can be seen to reduce pollution to the environment as there is increased nutrient uptake by the fish (8). Green issues Further environmental concerns which surround fish farming include the pollution caused by waste being discharged into the sea. However, made up of fish waste and undigested food, this is natural and it does not cause major problems or damage to marine environments (3). This likely to be accurate and precise information as Nick Fullerton is a professional with a degree in biology and has had many years experience in mariculture. The energy cost of running the hatchery which includes pumping water 24 hours day and the continuous monitoring probes must also be taken into account when considering the environmental implications of fish farming. A breath of fresh air Continuing my tour, I am shown the large round tanks where the fish are held. A strange looking square device sits on the surface of the water. Consisting of a flimsy plastic frame, it looks unimportant, however, it has the potential to raise the survival of the fish by 90% (3). This is a surface skimmer which cleans the surface of the water by blowing air over it to remove the oily film which would otherwise build up. When the surface is clear, young fish are able to gulp air in order to inflate the swim bladder, an organ in bony fish used for buoyancy. As the fish rely on the water in order to breathe and grow, the water quality can have a huge impact on the success of fish farming (10). The seawater in the hatchery is filtered through filters only 1 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½m thick in order to remove most harmful bacteria and parasites and the continuous flow maintains the water quality (3). Bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Oceanospirillum, Marinobactera and Paracoccus are common in marine environments (11). Much more impressive are the electronic probes which measure oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia levels and pH. However, water is not recirculated otherwise very strict controls would have to be enforced on water quality (3). Oxygen, required for aerobic respiration, is kept at a concentration of 8 mg per litre, or almost 100% saturation (At 20 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, normal pressure and in freshwater, 9.1 mg/L = 100% saturation (12)). Fish require a high concentration of oxygen because they are very active and have a high metabolism. The oxygen concentration is increased when stress levels are elevated such as during transport. This causes the heart rate to increase and so the fish to take in more oxygen. Carbon dioxide levels are kept below 5 parts per million (ppm) and ammonia which is excreted by the fish is kept below 0.02 ppm. PH is ideally kept between 6.5 and 9.0 (10). More advanced probes are being developed but these advancements are limited by cost. Temperature is kept around 7-8à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C for cod and slightly warmer for turbot. These temperatures are maintained by 3 water inlets to each tank of cold, heated and ambient water. Hot water is not used due to the high cost, especially as the water is not recirculated. Food for thought The ethics of keeping the fish at high stocking densities needs to be considered, however, it can also be seen that their survival is much higher than in the wild. At 50 days, this is 20-30% compared with less than 1% in the wild (3). Turbot even appear to thrive at high densities (13) as this is natural to them in a marine environment on the ocean floor. This is likely to be valid information as it comes from an educational source although, published in 1992, it is not up-to-date. Another concern is that if farmed fish escape and breed with wild stock, the genetic strain may be weakened as farmed cod have lost much of their natural awareness (3). Help or hindrance? Mariculture is growing worldwide at a rate of 5% annually (14) but is it actually accomplishing its aim of increasing fish stock? The use of fishmeal in fish farming means that it relieves pressure on one species only to transfer it to others. It can be argued that the numbers of other species of fish removed from the ocean in order to feed farmed fish mean that the problem is not solved. Furthermore, depleted stocks of other species may disrupt complex food webs in marine ecosystems as ‘population dynamics, competition for food and patterns of predation' are changed (15).